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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  90        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  91        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  92        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  93        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  94        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  95        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  99        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 100        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101    }
 102
 103    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 104    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 107    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 108
 109    # Always do union distinct or union all
 110    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 111
 112    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 113    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 116    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 119    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 122    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 123
 124    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 125    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 128    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 131    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 132
 133    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 134    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 135
 136    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 137    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 138
 139    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 140    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 141
 142    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 143    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 144
 145    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 146    JOIN_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 149    TABLE_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 152    QUERY_HINTS = True
 153
 154    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 155    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 156
 157    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 158    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 161    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 164    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 167    RETURNING_END = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 170    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 173    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 176    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 179    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 180
 181    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 182    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 183
 184    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 185    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 186    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 187    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 188
 189    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 190        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 197    }
 198
 199    STAR_MAPPING = {
 200        "except": "EXCEPT",
 201        "replace": "REPLACE",
 202    }
 203
 204    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 205        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 206        "seconds": "second",
 207        "minutes": "minute",
 208        "hours": "hour",
 209        "days": "day",
 210        "weeks": "week",
 211        "months": "month",
 212        "quarters": "quarter",
 213        "years": "year",
 214    }
 215
 216    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 217
 218    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 219
 220    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 221
 222    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 223        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 233        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 241        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 242        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 245        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 251        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 252        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 254        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 255        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 257        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 259        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 261        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 279        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280    }
 281
 282    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 283    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 284
 285    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 286    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 287        exp.Create,
 288        exp.Delete,
 289        exp.Drop,
 290        exp.From,
 291        exp.Insert,
 292        exp.Join,
 293        exp.Select,
 294        exp.Update,
 295        exp.Where,
 296        exp.With,
 297    )
 298
 299    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 300    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 301        exp.Column,
 302        exp.Literal,
 303        exp.Neg,
 304        exp.Paren,
 305    )
 306
 307    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 308
 309    # Autofilled
 310    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 311    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 312    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 313    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 314    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 315    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 316    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 317    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 318    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 319    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 320
 321    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 322
 323    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 324    QUOTE_START = "'"
 325    QUOTE_END = "'"
 326    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 327    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 328    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 329
 330    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 331    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337
 338    __slots__ = (
 339        "pretty",
 340        "identify",
 341        "normalize",
 342        "pad",
 343        "_indent",
 344        "normalize_functions",
 345        "unsupported_level",
 346        "max_unsupported",
 347        "leading_comma",
 348        "max_text_width",
 349        "comments",
 350        "unsupported_messages",
 351        "_escaped_quote_end",
 352        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 353        "_cache",
 354    )
 355
 356    def __init__(
 357        self,
 358        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 359        identify: str | bool = False,
 360        normalize: bool = False,
 361        pad: int = 2,
 362        indent: int = 2,
 363        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 364        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 365        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 366        leading_comma: bool = False,
 367        max_text_width: int = 80,
 368        comments: bool = True,
 369    ):
 370        import sqlglot
 371
 372        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 373        self.identify = identify
 374        self.normalize = normalize
 375        self.pad = pad
 376        self._indent = indent
 377        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 378        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 379        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 380        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 381        self.comments = comments
 382
 383        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 384        self.normalize_functions = (
 385            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 386        )
 387
 388        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 389        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 390        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 391            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 392        )
 393        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 394
 395    def generate(
 396        self,
 397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 398        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 399    ) -> str:
 400        """
 401        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 402
 403        Args:
 404            expression: The syntax tree.
 405            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 406                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 407
 408        Returns:
 409            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 410        """
 411        if cache is not None:
 412            self._cache = cache
 413
 414        self.unsupported_messages = []
 415        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 416        self._cache = None
 417
 418        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 422            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 423                logger.warning(msg)
 424        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 425            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 426
 427        if self.pretty:
 428            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 429        return sql
 430
 431    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 432        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 433            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 434        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 435
 436    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 437        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 438
 439    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 440        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 441
 442    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 443        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 444        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 445        return comment
 446
 447    def maybe_comment(
 448        self,
 449        sql: str,
 450        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 451        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 452    ) -> str:
 453        comments = (
 454            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 455            if self.comments
 456            else None
 457        )
 458
 459        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 460            return sql
 461
 462        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 463        comments_sql = sep.join(
 464            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 465        )
 466
 467        if not comments_sql:
 468            return sql
 469
 470        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 471            return (
 472                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 473                if sql[0].isspace()
 474                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 475            )
 476
 477        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 478
 479    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 480        this_sql = self.indent(
 481            self.sql(expression)
 482            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 483            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 484            level=1,
 485            pad=0,
 486        )
 487        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 488
 489    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 490        original = self.identify
 491        self.identify = False
 492        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 493        self.identify = original
 494        return result
 495
 496    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 497        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 498            return name.upper()
 499        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 500            return name.lower()
 501        return name
 502
 503    def indent(
 504        self,
 505        sql: str,
 506        level: int = 0,
 507        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 508        skip_first: bool = False,
 509        skip_last: bool = False,
 510    ) -> str:
 511        if not self.pretty:
 512            return sql
 513
 514        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 515        lines = sql.split("\n")
 516
 517        return "\n".join(
 518            line
 519            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 520            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 521            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 522        )
 523
 524    def sql(
 525        self,
 526        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 527        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 528        comment: bool = True,
 529    ) -> str:
 530        if not expression:
 531            return ""
 532
 533        if isinstance(expression, str):
 534            return expression
 535
 536        if key:
 537            value = expression.args.get(key)
 538            if value:
 539                return self.sql(value)
 540            return ""
 541
 542        if self._cache is not None:
 543            expression_id = hash(expression)
 544
 545            if expression_id in self._cache:
 546                return self._cache[expression_id]
 547
 548        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 549
 550        if callable(transform):
 551            sql = transform(self, expression)
 552        elif transform:
 553            sql = transform
 554        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 555            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 556
 557            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 558                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 559            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 560                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 561            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 562                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 563            else:
 564                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 565        else:
 566            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 567
 568        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 569
 570        if self._cache is not None:
 571            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 572        return sql
 573
 574    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 575        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 577        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 578
 579    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 580        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 581        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 582        options = expression.args.get("options")
 583        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 584        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 585        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 586        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 588
 589    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 590        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 591            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 592        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 593        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 594
 595    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 596        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 597
 598        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 599            join_mark = ""
 600            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 601
 602        column = ".".join(
 603            self.sql(part)
 604            for part in (
 605                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 606                expression.args.get("db"),
 607                expression.args.get("table"),
 608                expression.args.get("this"),
 609            )
 610            if part
 611        )
 612
 613        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 614
 615    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 617        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 618        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 619        return f"{position}{this}"
 620
 621    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 622        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 624        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 625        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 626        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 627        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 628        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 629        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 630
 631        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 632
 633    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 636        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 637
 638    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 640        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 641            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 642        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 643            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 644        else:
 645            persisted = ""
 646        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 647
 648    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 649        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 650
 651    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 652        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 653            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 654        else:
 655            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 656
 657        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 658
 659    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 660        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 661    ) -> str:
 662        this = ""
 663        if expression.this is not None:
 664            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 665            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 666
 667        start = expression.args.get("start")
 668        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 669        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 670        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 671        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 672        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 673        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 674        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 675        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 676        cycle_sql = ""
 677
 678        if cycle is not None:
 679            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 680            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 681
 682        sequence_opts = ""
 683        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 684            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 685            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 686
 687        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 688        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 689
 690        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 691
 692    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 693        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 694
 695    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 696        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 697        if desc is not None:
 698            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 699        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 700
 701    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 704        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 705
 706    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 707        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 708
 709    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 711        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 712        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 713
 714        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 715
 716        properties_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 718            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 719        ):
 720            properties_sql = self.sql(
 721                exp.Properties(
 722                    expressions=[
 723                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 725                    ]
 726                )
 727            )
 728
 729        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 730        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 731        if expression_sql:
 732            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 733
 734            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 735                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 736                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 737                        exp.Properties(
 738                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 739                        ),
 740                        wrapped=False,
 741                    )
 742                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 743                else:
 744                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 745
 746        postindex_props_sql = ""
 747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 748            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 750                wrapped=False,
 751                prefix=" ",
 752            )
 753
 754        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 755        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 756        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 757
 758        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 759        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 760
 761        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 762        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 763            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 764                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 765                sep=" ",
 766                prefix=" ",
 767                wrapped=False,
 768            )
 769
 770        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 771
 772        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 773        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 774            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 775                exp.Properties(
 776                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 777                ),
 778                sep=" ",
 779                prefix=" ",
 780                wrapped=False,
 781            )
 782
 783        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 784        no_schema_binding = (
 785            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 786        )
 787
 788        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 789        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 790
 791        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 793
 794    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 797
 798        if when:
 799            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 800            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 801            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 802
 803        return f"CLONE {this}"
 804
 805    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 806        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 807
 808    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 809        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 810        if with_:
 811            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 812        return sql
 813
 814    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 815        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 816        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 817
 818        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 819
 820    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 821        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 822        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 823
 824    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 825        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 827        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 828        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 829
 830    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        if self.BIT_START:
 833            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 834        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 835
 836    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        if self.HEX_START:
 839            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 840        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 841
 842    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        if self.BYTE_START:
 845            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 846        return this
 847
 848    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 849        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 850        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 851
 852    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 855        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 856        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 857
 858    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 859        type_value = expression.this
 860
 861        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 862            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 863        else:
 864            type_sql = (
 865                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 866                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 867                else type_value
 868            )
 869
 870        nested = ""
 871        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 872        values = ""
 873
 874        if interior:
 875            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 876                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 877                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 878                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 879                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 880                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 881            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 882                nested = f" {interior}"
 883            else:
 884                nested = f"({interior})"
 885
 886        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 887        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 888            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 890        ):
 891            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 892
 893        return type_sql
 894
 895    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 896        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 897        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 898        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 899        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 900
 901    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 904        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 905        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 906        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 907        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 908        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 909        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 910        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 911        if self.RETURNING_END:
 912            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 913        else:
 914            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 915        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 916
 917    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 919        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 920        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 921        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 922        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 923        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 924        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 925        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 926        return (
 927            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 928        )
 929
 930    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 931        return self.prepend_ctes(
 932            expression,
 933            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 934        )
 935
 936    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 937        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 938
 939    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 940        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 941        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 942        count = expression.args.get("count")
 943        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 944        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 945            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 946        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 947        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 948
 949    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 951        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 952        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 953
 954    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 955        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 956            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 957            return ""
 958
 959        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 960
 961    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 962        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 963        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 964        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 965        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 967        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 968        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 969        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 970        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 971        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 972        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 973        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 974        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 975        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 976        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 977
 978    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 979        text = expression.name
 980        lower = text.lower()
 981        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 982        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 983        if (
 984            expression.quoted
 985            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 986            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 987            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 988        ):
 989            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 990        return text
 991
 992    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 993        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 994        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 995        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 996        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 997        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 998
 999    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1000        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1001        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1002
1003    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1004        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1005
1006    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1007        root_properties = []
1008        with_properties = []
1009
1010        for p in expression.expressions:
1011            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1012            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1013                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1015                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1016
1017        return self.root_properties(
1018            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1019        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1020
1021    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1022        if properties.expressions:
1023            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1024        return ""
1025
1026    def properties(
1027        self,
1028        properties: exp.Properties,
1029        prefix: str = "",
1030        sep: str = ", ",
1031        suffix: str = "",
1032        wrapped: bool = True,
1033    ) -> str:
1034        if properties.expressions:
1035            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1036            if expressions:
1037                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1038                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1039        return ""
1040
1041    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1042        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1043
1044    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1045        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1046        for p in properties.expressions:
1047            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1048            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1049                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1050            else:
1051                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1052
1053        return properties_locs
1054
1055    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1056        property_cls = expression.__class__
1057        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1058            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1059
1060        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1061        if not property_name:
1062            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1063
1064        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1065
1066    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1067        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1068        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1069        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1070
1071    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1072        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1073        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1074        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1075
1076    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1077        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1078        local = expression.args.get("local")
1079        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1080        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1081        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1082        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1083        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1084
1085    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1086        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1088        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1089
1090    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1091        if expression.args.get("default"):
1092            property = "DEFAULT"
1093        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1094            property = "ON"
1095        else:
1096            property = "OFF"
1097        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1098
1099    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1100        if expression.args.get("no"):
1101            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1102        if expression.args.get("default"):
1103            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1104
1105        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1106        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1107
1108    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1109        default = expression.args.get("default")
1110        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1111        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1112        if default or minimum or maximum:
1113            if default:
1114                prop = "DEFAULT"
1115            elif minimum:
1116                prop = "MINIMUM"
1117            else:
1118                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1119            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1120        units = expression.args.get("units")
1121        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1122        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1123
1124    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1125        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1126        always = expression.args.get("always")
1127        default = expression.args.get("default")
1128        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1129        never = expression.args.get("never")
1130
1131        if autotemp is not None:
1132            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1133        elif always:
1134            prop = "ALWAYS"
1135        elif default:
1136            prop = "DEFAULT"
1137        elif manual:
1138            prop = "MANUAL"
1139        elif never:
1140            prop = "NEVER"
1141        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1142
1143    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1144        no = expression.args.get("no")
1145        no = " NO" if no else ""
1146        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1147        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1148
1149        for_ = ""
1150        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1151            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1152        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1153            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1154        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1155            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1156        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1157
1158    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1159        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1160        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1161        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1162        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1163        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1164        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1165
1166    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1167        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1168        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1169        statistics_sql = ""
1170        if statistics is not None:
1171            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1172        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1173
1174    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1175        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1176
1177        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1178            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1179        else:
1180            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1181
1182        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1183        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1184        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1185
1186        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1187
1188        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1189        partition_sql = (
1190            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1191        )
1192        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1193        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1194        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1195        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1196        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1197        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1198
1199        if self.RETURNING_END:
1200            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1201        else:
1202            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1203
1204        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1205        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1206
1207    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1208        return self.prepend_ctes(
1209            expression,
1210            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1211        )
1212
1213    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1214        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1215
1216    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1217        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1218
1219    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1220        return expression.name.upper()
1221
1222    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1223        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1224        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1225        if constraint:
1226            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1227        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1228        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1229        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1230        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1231        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1232        if expressions:
1233            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1234        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1235
1236    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1237        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1238
1239    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1240        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1241        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1242        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1243        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1244        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1245        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1246        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1247        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1248        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1249        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1250        null = expression.args.get("null")
1251        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1252        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1253
1254    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1255        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1256
1257    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1258        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1259        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1260        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1261        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1262
1263    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1264        table = ".".join(
1265            part
1266            for part in [
1267                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1268                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1269                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1270            ]
1271            if part
1272        )
1273
1274        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1275        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1276        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1277        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1278        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1279        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1280        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1281        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1282        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1283        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1284
1285        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1286
1287    def tablesample_sql(
1288        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1289    ) -> str:
1290        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1291            table = expression.this.copy()
1292            table.set("alias", None)
1293            this = self.sql(table)
1294            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1295        else:
1296            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297            alias = ""
1298        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1299        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1300        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1301        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1302        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1303        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1304        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1305        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1306        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1307        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1308        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1309        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1310        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1311            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1312        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1313        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1314        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1315        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1316
1317    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1318        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1319
1320        if expression.this:
1321            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1323            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1324            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1325            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1326            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1327
1328        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1329        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1330        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1331        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1332        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1333        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1334        if include_nulls is not None:
1335            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1336        else:
1337            nulls = ""
1338        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1339
1340    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1341        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1342
1343    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1346        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1347        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1348        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1349        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1350        if self.RETURNING_END:
1351            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1352        else:
1353            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1354        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1356
1357    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1358        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1359        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1360            args = self.expressions(expression)
1361            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1362            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1363            values = (
1364                f"({values})"
1365                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1366                else values
1367            )
1368            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1369
1370        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1371        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1372        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1373        # very slow.
1374        expression = expression.copy()
1375        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1376
1377        selects = []
1378
1379        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1380            row = tup.expressions
1381
1382            if i == 0 and column_names:
1383                row = [
1384                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1385                ]
1386
1387            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1388
1389        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1390        if len(selects) > 1:
1391            for select in selects[1:]:
1392                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1393                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1394                )
1395
1396        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1397
1398    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1399        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1400
1401    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1402        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1403        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1404        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1405
1406    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1407        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1408
1409    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1410        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1411
1412        if expression.args.get("all"):
1413            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1414
1415        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1416        grouping_sets = (
1417            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1418        )
1419
1420        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1421        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1422            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1423        else:
1424            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1425            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1426
1427        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1428        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1429            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1430        else:
1431            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1432            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1433
1434        groupings = csv(
1435            grouping_sets,
1436            cube_sql,
1437            rollup_sql,
1438            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1439            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1440        )
1441
1442        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1443            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1444
1445        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1446
1447    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1448        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1449        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1450
1451    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1452        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1453        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1454        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1455        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1456        return start + connect
1457
1458    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1459        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1460
1461    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1462        op_sql = " ".join(
1463            op
1464            for op in (
1465                expression.method,
1466                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1467                expression.side,
1468                expression.kind,
1469                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1470            )
1471            if op
1472        )
1473        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1474        using = expression.args.get("using")
1475
1476        if not on_sql and using:
1477            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1478
1479        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1480
1481        if on_sql:
1482            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1483            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1484            if using:
1485                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1486            else:
1487                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1488        elif not op_sql:
1489            return f", {this_sql}"
1490
1491        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1492        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1493
1494    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1495        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1496        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1497        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1498
1499    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501
1502        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1503            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1504
1505        if expression.args.get("view"):
1506            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1507            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1508            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1509            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1510            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1511            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1512
1513        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1514        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1515        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1516
1517    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519        args = ", ".join(
1520            sql
1521            for sql in (
1522                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1523                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1524            )
1525            if sql
1526        )
1527        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1528
1529    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1531        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1532
1533    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1535        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1537        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1538        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1539        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1540        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1541        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1542
1543    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1544        expressions = (
1545            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1546        )
1547        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1548        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1549
1550    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1551        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1552
1553    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1554        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1555            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1556            return ""
1557
1558        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1559        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1560        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1561        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1562
1563        if wait is not None:
1564            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1565                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1566            else:
1567                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1568
1569        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1570
1571    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1572        text = expression.this or ""
1573        if expression.is_string:
1574            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1575        return text
1576
1577    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1578        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1579        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1580            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1581        elif self.pretty:
1582            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1583        return text
1584
1585    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1586        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1587        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1588        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1589        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1590        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1591        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1592        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1593        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1594        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1595        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1596        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1597
1598    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1599        return "NULL"
1600
1601    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1602        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1603
1604    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1606        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1607        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1608
1609    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1610        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1611
1612    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1613        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1614
1615    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1616        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1617
1618    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1619        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1620        asc = not desc
1621
1622        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1623        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1624        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1625        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1626        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1627
1628        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1629        nulls_sort_change = ""
1630        if nulls_first and (
1631            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1632        ):
1633            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1634        elif (
1635            nulls_last
1636            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1637            and not nulls_are_last
1638        ):
1639            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1640
1641        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1642            self.unsupported(
1643                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1644            )
1645            nulls_sort_change = ""
1646
1647        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1648
1649    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1650        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1651        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1652        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1653        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1654        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1655        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1656        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1657        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1658        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1659        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1660        definition_sqls = [
1661            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1662            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1663        ]
1664        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1665        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1666        body = "".join(
1667            (
1668                partition,
1669                order,
1670                measures,
1671                rows,
1672                after,
1673                pattern,
1674                define,
1675            )
1676        )
1677        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1678        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1679        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1680
1681    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1682        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1683
1684        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1685        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1686
1687        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1688            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1689        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1690            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1691
1692        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1693
1694        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1695            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1696            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1697            else []
1698        )
1699
1700        return csv(
1701            *sqls,
1702            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1703            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1704            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1705            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1706            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1707            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1708            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1709            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1710            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1711            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1712            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1713            sep="",
1714        )
1715
1716    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1717        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1718    ) -> t.List[str]:
1719        return [
1720            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1721            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1722        ]
1723
1724    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1725        return [
1726            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1727            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1728            if expression.args.get("windows")
1729            else "",
1730            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1731            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1732            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1733        ]
1734
1735    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1736        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1737        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1738        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1739
1740    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1743        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1744        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1745        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1746        top = (
1747            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1748            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1749            else ""
1750        )
1751
1752        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1753
1754        if kind:
1755            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1756                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1757            else:
1758                if kind == "STRUCT":
1759                    expressions = self.expressions(
1760                        sqls=[
1761                            self.sql(
1762                                exp.Struct(
1763                                    expressions=[
1764                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1765                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1766                                        )
1767                                        for e in expression.expressions
1768                                    ]
1769                                )
1770                            )
1771                        ]
1772                    )
1773                kind = ""
1774
1775        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1776        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1777            expression,
1778            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1779            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1780            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1781        )
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1783
1784    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1787        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1788        return f"{this}{sql}"
1789
1790    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1791        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1792
1793    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1794        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1795        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1796        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1797        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1798        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1799
1800    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1803        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1804
1805    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        kind = expression.text("kind")
1808        if kind:
1809            kind = f"{kind}."
1810        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1811
1812    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1813        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1814
1815    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1817        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1818
1819        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1820        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1821
1822        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1823        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1824
1825    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1826        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1827        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1828
1829    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1830        return self.prepend_ctes(
1831            expression,
1832            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1833        )
1834
1835    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1836        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1837        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1838        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1839        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1840
1841    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1842        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1843        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1844        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1845            columns = alias.columns
1846            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1847        else:
1848            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1849        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1850        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1851        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1852        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1853        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1854
1855    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1856        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1857        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1858
1859    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1861        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1862        order = expression.args.get("order")
1863        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1864        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1865        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1866        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1867
1868        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1869
1870        first = expression.args.get("first")
1871        if first is None:
1872            first = ""
1873        else:
1874            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1875
1876        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1877            return f"{this} {alias}"
1878
1879        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1880        return f"{this} ({args})"
1881
1882    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1883        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1884        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1885
1886    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1887        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1888        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1889        end = (
1890            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1891            or "CURRENT ROW"
1892        )
1893        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1894
1895    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1898        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1899
1900    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1902        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1903        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1904        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1905
1906    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1907        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1908        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1909
1910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1911
1912    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1913        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1914
1915    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1916        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1917
1918    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1920        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1921            this = self.wrap(this)
1922        return f"ANY {this}"
1923
1924    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1925        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1926
1927    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1929        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1930
1931        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1932            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1933            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1934
1935        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1936
1937        if default:
1938            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1939
1940        statements.append("END")
1941
1942        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1943            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1944
1945        return " ".join(statements)
1946
1947    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1951
1952    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1953        order = expression.args.get("order")
1954        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1955        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1956
1957    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1958        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1959        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1960        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1961
1962    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1963        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1964
1965        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1966            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1967        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1968            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1969        else:
1970            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1971
1972    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1973        expressions = expression.expressions
1974        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1975            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1976        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1977
1978    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1979        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1980        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1981
1982    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1983        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1985        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1986        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1987        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1988        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1989        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1990        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1991
1992    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1993        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1994        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1995        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1996        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1997
1998    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1999        expression = expression.copy()
2000        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2001
2002    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2003        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2004        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2005        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2006
2007    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2008        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2009
2010    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2011        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2012        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2013        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2014        if unique_keys is not None:
2015            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2016        else:
2017            unique_keys = ""
2018        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2019        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2020        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2021        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2022        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2023        return self.func(
2024            "JSON_OBJECT",
2025            *expression.expressions,
2026            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2027        )
2028
2029    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2031        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2032        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2033        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2034        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2035        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2036
2037    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2040        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2041        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2042        with_ = (
2043            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2044            if expressions
2045            else ""
2046        )
2047        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2048
2049    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2050        query = expression.args.get("query")
2051        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2052        field = expression.args.get("field")
2053        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2054
2055        if query:
2056            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2057        elif unnest:
2058            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2059        elif field:
2060            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2061        else:
2062            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2063
2064        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2065
2066    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2067        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2068
2069    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2070        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2071        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2072            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2073        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2074
2075        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2076            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2077            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2078
2079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2080        if this:
2081            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2082            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2083
2084        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2085
2086    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2087        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2088
2089    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2092        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2093        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2094        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2095        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2096
2097    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2098        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2099
2100    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2101        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2102            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2103        else:
2104            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2105            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2106
2107        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2108
2109    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2110        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2111        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2112        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2113        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2114
2115    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2116        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2117
2118    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2119        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2120        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2122
2123    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2124        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2125
2126    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2128        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2129        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2130
2131    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2132        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2133
2134    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2135        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2136
2137    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2138        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2139
2140    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2141        if not self.pretty:
2142            return self.binary(expression, op)
2143
2144        sqls = tuple(
2145            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2146            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2147        )
2148
2149        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2150        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2151
2152    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2154
2155    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2157
2158    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2159        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2160
2161    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2163
2164    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2166
2167    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2169
2170    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2171        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2172        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2173        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2174
2175    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2176        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2178
2179    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2180        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2181
2182    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2184
2185    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2188        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2189        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2190        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2191
2192    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2194        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2195        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2196        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2197        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2198        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2199        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2200        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2201        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2202
2203    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2204        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2205        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2206        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2207        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2208
2209        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2210            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2211
2212        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2213
2214    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2215        return "BEGIN"
2216
2217    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2218        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2219        if chain is not None:
2220            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2221
2222        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2223
2224    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2225        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2226        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2227        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2228
2229    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2231
2232        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2233        if dtype:
2234            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2235            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2236            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2237            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2238            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2239
2240        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2241        if default:
2242            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2243
2244        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2245            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2246
2247        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2248
2249    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2250        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2251            # Remove db from tables
2252            expression = expression.transform(
2253                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2254            )
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2257
2258    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2259        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2260
2261        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2262            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2263        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2264            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2265        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2266            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2267        else:
2268            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2269
2270        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2271        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2272
2273    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2274        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2275        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2276        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2277
2278    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2281        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2282
2283        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2284        if enforced is not None:
2285            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2286
2287        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2288
2289    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2290        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2291        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2292
2293        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2294        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2295        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2296
2297    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2298        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2299
2300    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2302
2303    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2304        return self.sql(
2305            exp.Cast(
2306                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2307                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2308            )
2309        )
2310
2311    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2313
2314    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2315        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2316            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2317        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2318
2319    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2320        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2321
2322    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2324
2325    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2327
2328    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2329        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2330
2331    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2333
2334    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2336
2337    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2339
2340    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2342
2343    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2345
2346    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2348
2349    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2351
2352    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2353        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2354            return self.sql(
2355                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2356            )
2357        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2358
2359    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2360        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2361
2362    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2364
2365    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2367
2368    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2370
2371    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2372        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2373
2374    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2375        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2376
2377    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2378        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2379
2380    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2381        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2382
2383    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2385
2386    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2387        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2388
2389    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2390        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2391
2392    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2393        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2394
2395    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2396        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2397
2398    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2399        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2400
2401    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2402        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2403        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2405        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2406        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2407
2408    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2409        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2410        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2411
2412    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2413        args = []
2414
2415        for key in expression.arg_types:
2416            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2417
2418            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2419                for value in arg_value:
2420                    args.append(value)
2421            elif arg_value is not None:
2422                args.append(arg_value)
2423
2424        if self.normalize_functions:
2425            name = expression.sql_name()
2426        else:
2427            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2428
2429        return self.func(name, *args)
2430
2431    def func(
2432        self,
2433        name: str,
2434        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2435        prefix: str = "(",
2436        suffix: str = ")",
2437    ) -> str:
2438        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2439
2440    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2441        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2442        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2443            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2444        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2445
2446    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2447        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2448
2449    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2450        return format_time(
2451            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2452        )
2453
2454    def expressions(
2455        self,
2456        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2457        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2458        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2459        flat: bool = False,
2460        indent: bool = True,
2461        skip_first: bool = False,
2462        sep: str = ", ",
2463        prefix: str = "",
2464    ) -> str:
2465        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2466
2467        if not expressions:
2468            return ""
2469
2470        if flat:
2471            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2472
2473        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2474
2475        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2476        pad = " " * self.pad
2477        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2478
2479        result_sqls = []
2480        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2481            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2482            if not sql:
2483                continue
2484
2485            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2486
2487            if self.pretty:
2488                if self.leading_comma:
2489                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2490                else:
2491                    result_sqls.append(
2492                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2493                    )
2494            else:
2495                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2496
2497        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2498        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2499
2500    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2501        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2502        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2503        if flat:
2504            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2505        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2506
2507    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2508        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2509        if not property_name:
2510            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2511        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2512
2513    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        op = self.seg(op)
2516        return self.query_modifiers(
2517            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2518        )
2519
2520    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2521        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2522
2523    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2524        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2525
2526    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2529        expressions = (
2530            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2531        )
2532        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2533
2534    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2537        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2538
2539    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2540        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2541
2542    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2543        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2544        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2545        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2546        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2547
2548        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2549        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2550            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2551            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2552                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2553        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2554            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2555                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2556            else:
2557                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2558        else:
2559            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2560        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2561
2562    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2563        table = expression.this
2564        table_alias = ""
2565
2566        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2567        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2568            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2569            table = table.copy()
2570            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2571
2572        this = self.sql(table)
2573        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2574        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2575        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2576
2577        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2578
2579    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2580        if expression.args.get("format"):
2581            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2582
2583        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2584
2585    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2587        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2588        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2589        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2590        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2591
2592    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2594        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2595        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2596        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2597
2598    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2599        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2600
2601    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2602        return ""
2603
2604    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2605        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2606        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2607        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2608        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2609        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2610
2611    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2613        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2614
2615        if having:
2616            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2617
2618        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2619
2620    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2621        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2622        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2623        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2624        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2625        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2626        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2627        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2628        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2629        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2630        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2631        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2632        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2633        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2634
2635    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2636        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2637        if key_block_size:
2638            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2639
2640        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2641        if using:
2642            return f"USING {using}"
2643
2644        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2645        if parser:
2646            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2647
2648        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2649        if comment:
2650            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2651
2652        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2653        if visible is not None:
2654            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2655
2656        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2657        if engine_attr:
2658            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2659
2660        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2661        if secondary_engine_attr:
2662            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2663
2664        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2665        return ""
2666
2667    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2669        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2671        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2672        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2673        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2674        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2675        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2676        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2677        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2678        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2679
2680    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2681        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2682            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2683
2684        case = exp.Case().when(
2685            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2686            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2687            copy=False,
2688        )
2689        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2690        if else_cond:
2691            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2692
2693        return self.sql(case)
2694
2695    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2698        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2699        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2700        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2701        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2702
2703
2704def cached_generator(
2705    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2706) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2707    """Returns a cached generator."""
2708    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2709    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2710    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  77        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 105    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 108    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 109
 110    # Always do union distinct or union all
 111    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 112
 113    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 114    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 117    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 120    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 123    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 126    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 129    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 132    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 135    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 136
 137    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 138    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 139
 140    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 141    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 142
 143    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 144    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 145
 146    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 147    JOIN_HINTS = True
 148
 149    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 150    TABLE_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 153    QUERY_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 156    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 157
 158    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 159    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 162    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 165    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 168    RETURNING_END = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 171    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 174    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 175
 176    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 177    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 178
 179    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 180    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 181
 182    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 183    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 184
 185    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 186    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 187    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 188    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 189
 190    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 198    }
 199
 200    STAR_MAPPING = {
 201        "except": "EXCEPT",
 202        "replace": "REPLACE",
 203    }
 204
 205    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 206        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 207        "seconds": "second",
 208        "minutes": "minute",
 209        "hours": "hour",
 210        "days": "day",
 211        "weeks": "week",
 212        "months": "month",
 213        "quarters": "quarter",
 214        "years": "year",
 215    }
 216
 217    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 218
 219    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 220
 221    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 222
 223    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 224        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 234        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 242        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 244        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 246        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 252        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 253        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 255        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 256        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 258        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 260        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 262        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 275        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 279        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 280        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281    }
 282
 283    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 284    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 285
 286    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 287    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 288        exp.Create,
 289        exp.Delete,
 290        exp.Drop,
 291        exp.From,
 292        exp.Insert,
 293        exp.Join,
 294        exp.Select,
 295        exp.Update,
 296        exp.Where,
 297        exp.With,
 298    )
 299
 300    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 301    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 302        exp.Column,
 303        exp.Literal,
 304        exp.Neg,
 305        exp.Paren,
 306    )
 307
 308    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 309
 310    # Autofilled
 311    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 312    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 313    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 314    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 315    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 316    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 317    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 318    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 319    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 320    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 321
 322    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 323
 324    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 325    QUOTE_START = "'"
 326    QUOTE_END = "'"
 327    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 328    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 329    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 330
 331    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 332    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 338
 339    __slots__ = (
 340        "pretty",
 341        "identify",
 342        "normalize",
 343        "pad",
 344        "_indent",
 345        "normalize_functions",
 346        "unsupported_level",
 347        "max_unsupported",
 348        "leading_comma",
 349        "max_text_width",
 350        "comments",
 351        "unsupported_messages",
 352        "_escaped_quote_end",
 353        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 354        "_cache",
 355    )
 356
 357    def __init__(
 358        self,
 359        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 360        identify: str | bool = False,
 361        normalize: bool = False,
 362        pad: int = 2,
 363        indent: int = 2,
 364        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 365        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 366        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 367        leading_comma: bool = False,
 368        max_text_width: int = 80,
 369        comments: bool = True,
 370    ):
 371        import sqlglot
 372
 373        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 374        self.identify = identify
 375        self.normalize = normalize
 376        self.pad = pad
 377        self._indent = indent
 378        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 379        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 380        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 381        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 382        self.comments = comments
 383
 384        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 385        self.normalize_functions = (
 386            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 387        )
 388
 389        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 390        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 391        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 392            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 393        )
 394        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 395
 396    def generate(
 397        self,
 398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 399        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 400    ) -> str:
 401        """
 402        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 403
 404        Args:
 405            expression: The syntax tree.
 406            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 407                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 408
 409        Returns:
 410            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 411        """
 412        if cache is not None:
 413            self._cache = cache
 414
 415        self.unsupported_messages = []
 416        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 417        self._cache = None
 418
 419        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 423            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 424                logger.warning(msg)
 425        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 426            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 427
 428        if self.pretty:
 429            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 430        return sql
 431
 432    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 433        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 434            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 435        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 436
 437    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 438        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 439
 440    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 441        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 442
 443    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 444        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 445        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 446        return comment
 447
 448    def maybe_comment(
 449        self,
 450        sql: str,
 451        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 452        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 453    ) -> str:
 454        comments = (
 455            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 456            if self.comments
 457            else None
 458        )
 459
 460        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 461            return sql
 462
 463        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 464        comments_sql = sep.join(
 465            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 466        )
 467
 468        if not comments_sql:
 469            return sql
 470
 471        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 472            return (
 473                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 474                if sql[0].isspace()
 475                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 476            )
 477
 478        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 479
 480    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 481        this_sql = self.indent(
 482            self.sql(expression)
 483            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 484            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 485            level=1,
 486            pad=0,
 487        )
 488        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 489
 490    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 491        original = self.identify
 492        self.identify = False
 493        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 494        self.identify = original
 495        return result
 496
 497    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 498        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 499            return name.upper()
 500        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 501            return name.lower()
 502        return name
 503
 504    def indent(
 505        self,
 506        sql: str,
 507        level: int = 0,
 508        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 509        skip_first: bool = False,
 510        skip_last: bool = False,
 511    ) -> str:
 512        if not self.pretty:
 513            return sql
 514
 515        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 516        lines = sql.split("\n")
 517
 518        return "\n".join(
 519            line
 520            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 521            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 522            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 523        )
 524
 525    def sql(
 526        self,
 527        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 529        comment: bool = True,
 530    ) -> str:
 531        if not expression:
 532            return ""
 533
 534        if isinstance(expression, str):
 535            return expression
 536
 537        if key:
 538            value = expression.args.get(key)
 539            if value:
 540                return self.sql(value)
 541            return ""
 542
 543        if self._cache is not None:
 544            expression_id = hash(expression)
 545
 546            if expression_id in self._cache:
 547                return self._cache[expression_id]
 548
 549        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 550
 551        if callable(transform):
 552            sql = transform(self, expression)
 553        elif transform:
 554            sql = transform
 555        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 556            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 557
 558            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 559                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 561                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 563                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 564            else:
 565                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 566        else:
 567            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 568
 569        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 570
 571        if self._cache is not None:
 572            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 573        return sql
 574
 575    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 578        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 579
 580    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 581        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 582        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 583        options = expression.args.get("options")
 584        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 585        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 586        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 587        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 589
 590    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 591        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 592            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 593        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 594        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 595
 596    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 597        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 598
 599        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 600            join_mark = ""
 601            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 602
 603        column = ".".join(
 604            self.sql(part)
 605            for part in (
 606                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 607                expression.args.get("db"),
 608                expression.args.get("table"),
 609                expression.args.get("this"),
 610            )
 611            if part
 612        )
 613
 614        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 615
 616    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 620        return f"{position}{this}"
 621
 622    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 623        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 625        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 626        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 627        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 628        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 629        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 630        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 631
 632        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 633
 634    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 636        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 637        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 638
 639    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 641        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 642            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 643        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 644            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 645        else:
 646            persisted = ""
 647        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 648
 649    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 650        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 651
 652    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 653        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 654            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 655        else:
 656            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 657
 658        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 659
 660    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 661        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 662    ) -> str:
 663        this = ""
 664        if expression.this is not None:
 665            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 666            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 667
 668        start = expression.args.get("start")
 669        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 670        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 671        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 672        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 673        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 674        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 675        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 676        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 677        cycle_sql = ""
 678
 679        if cycle is not None:
 680            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 681            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 682
 683        sequence_opts = ""
 684        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 685            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 686            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 687
 688        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 689        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 690
 691        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 692
 693    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 694        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 695
 696    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 698        if desc is not None:
 699            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 700        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 701
 702    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 705        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 706
 707    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 708        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 709
 710    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 712        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 713        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 714
 715        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 716
 717        properties_sql = ""
 718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 719            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 720        ):
 721            properties_sql = self.sql(
 722                exp.Properties(
 723                    expressions=[
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 725                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 726                    ]
 727                )
 728            )
 729
 730        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 732        if expression_sql:
 733            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 734
 735            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 736                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 737                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 738                        exp.Properties(
 739                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 740                        ),
 741                        wrapped=False,
 742                    )
 743                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 744                else:
 745                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 746
 747        postindex_props_sql = ""
 748        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 749            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 750                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 751                wrapped=False,
 752                prefix=" ",
 753            )
 754
 755        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 756        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 757        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 758
 759        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 760        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 761
 762        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 763        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 764            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 765                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 766                sep=" ",
 767                prefix=" ",
 768                wrapped=False,
 769            )
 770
 771        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 772
 773        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 774        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 775            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 776                exp.Properties(
 777                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 778                ),
 779                sep=" ",
 780                prefix=" ",
 781                wrapped=False,
 782            )
 783
 784        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 785        no_schema_binding = (
 786            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 787        )
 788
 789        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 790        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 791
 792        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 794
 795    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 798
 799        if when:
 800            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 801            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 802            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 803
 804        return f"CLONE {this}"
 805
 806    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 807        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 808
 809    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 810        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 811        if with_:
 812            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 813        return sql
 814
 815    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 816        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 817        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 818
 819        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 820
 821    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 822        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 823        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 824
 825    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 826        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 828        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 829        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 830
 831    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        if self.BIT_START:
 834            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 835        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 836
 837    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        if self.HEX_START:
 840            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 841        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 842
 843    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        if self.BYTE_START:
 846            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 847        return this
 848
 849    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 850        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 851        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 852
 853    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 856        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 857        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 858
 859    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 860        type_value = expression.this
 861
 862        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 863            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 864        else:
 865            type_sql = (
 866                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 867                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 868                else type_value
 869            )
 870
 871        nested = ""
 872        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 873        values = ""
 874
 875        if interior:
 876            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 877                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 878                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 879                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 880                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 881                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 882            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 883                nested = f" {interior}"
 884            else:
 885                nested = f"({interior})"
 886
 887        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 888        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 890            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 891        ):
 892            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 893
 894        return type_sql
 895
 896    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 897        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 898        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 899        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 900        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 901
 902    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 905        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 906        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 907        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 908        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 909        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 910        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 911        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 912        if self.RETURNING_END:
 913            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 914        else:
 915            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 916        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 917
 918    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 920        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 922        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 923        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 924        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 925        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 926        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 927        return (
 928            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 929        )
 930
 931    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 932        return self.prepend_ctes(
 933            expression,
 934            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 935        )
 936
 937    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 938        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 939
 940    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 941        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 942        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 943        count = expression.args.get("count")
 944        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 945        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 946            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 947        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 948        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 949
 950    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 952        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 953        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 954
 955    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 956        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 957            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 958            return ""
 959
 960        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 961
 962    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 963        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 964        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 965        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 966        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 968        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 969        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 970        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 971        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 972        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 973        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 974        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 975        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 976        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 977        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 978
 979    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 980        text = expression.name
 981        lower = text.lower()
 982        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 983        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 984        if (
 985            expression.quoted
 986            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 987            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 988            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 989        ):
 990            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 991        return text
 992
 993    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 994        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 995        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 996        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 997        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 998        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 999
1000    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1001        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1002        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1003
1004    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1005        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1006
1007    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1008        root_properties = []
1009        with_properties = []
1010
1011        for p in expression.expressions:
1012            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1013            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1014                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1016                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1017
1018        return self.root_properties(
1019            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1020        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1021
1022    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1023        if properties.expressions:
1024            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1025        return ""
1026
1027    def properties(
1028        self,
1029        properties: exp.Properties,
1030        prefix: str = "",
1031        sep: str = ", ",
1032        suffix: str = "",
1033        wrapped: bool = True,
1034    ) -> str:
1035        if properties.expressions:
1036            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1037            if expressions:
1038                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1039                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1040        return ""
1041
1042    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1043        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1044
1045    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1046        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1047        for p in properties.expressions:
1048            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1049            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1050                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1051            else:
1052                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1053
1054        return properties_locs
1055
1056    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1057        property_cls = expression.__class__
1058        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1059            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1060
1061        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1062        if not property_name:
1063            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1064
1065        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1066
1067    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1068        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1069        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1070        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1071
1072    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1073        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1074        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1075        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1076
1077    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        local = expression.args.get("local")
1080        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1081        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1082        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1083        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1084        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1085
1086    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1087        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1089        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1090
1091    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1092        if expression.args.get("default"):
1093            property = "DEFAULT"
1094        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1095            property = "ON"
1096        else:
1097            property = "OFF"
1098        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1099
1100    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1101        if expression.args.get("no"):
1102            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1103        if expression.args.get("default"):
1104            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1105
1106        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1107        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1108
1109    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1110        default = expression.args.get("default")
1111        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1112        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1113        if default or minimum or maximum:
1114            if default:
1115                prop = "DEFAULT"
1116            elif minimum:
1117                prop = "MINIMUM"
1118            else:
1119                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1120            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1121        units = expression.args.get("units")
1122        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1123        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1124
1125    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1126        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1127        always = expression.args.get("always")
1128        default = expression.args.get("default")
1129        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1130        never = expression.args.get("never")
1131
1132        if autotemp is not None:
1133            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1134        elif always:
1135            prop = "ALWAYS"
1136        elif default:
1137            prop = "DEFAULT"
1138        elif manual:
1139            prop = "MANUAL"
1140        elif never:
1141            prop = "NEVER"
1142        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1143
1144    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1145        no = expression.args.get("no")
1146        no = " NO" if no else ""
1147        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1148        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1149
1150        for_ = ""
1151        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1152            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1153        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1154            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1155        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1156            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1157        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1158
1159    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1160        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1161        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1162        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1163        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1164        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1165        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1166
1167    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1168        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1169        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1170        statistics_sql = ""
1171        if statistics is not None:
1172            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1173        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1174
1175    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1176        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1177
1178        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1179            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1180        else:
1181            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1182
1183        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1184        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1185        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1186
1187        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1188
1189        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1190        partition_sql = (
1191            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1192        )
1193        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1194        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1195        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1196        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1197        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1198        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1199
1200        if self.RETURNING_END:
1201            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1202        else:
1203            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1204
1205        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1206        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1207
1208    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1209        return self.prepend_ctes(
1210            expression,
1211            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1212        )
1213
1214    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1215        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1216
1217    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1218        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1219
1220    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1221        return expression.name.upper()
1222
1223    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1224        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1225        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1226        if constraint:
1227            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1228        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1229        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1230        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1231        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1232        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1233        if expressions:
1234            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1235        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1236
1237    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1238        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1239
1240    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1241        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1242        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1243        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1244        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1245        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1246        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1247        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1248        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1249        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1250        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1251        null = expression.args.get("null")
1252        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1253        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1254
1255    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1256        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1257
1258    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1259        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1260        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1261        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1262        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1263
1264    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1265        table = ".".join(
1266            part
1267            for part in [
1268                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1269                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1270                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1271            ]
1272            if part
1273        )
1274
1275        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1276        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1277        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1278        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1279        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1280        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1281        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1282        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1283        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1284        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1285
1286        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1287
1288    def tablesample_sql(
1289        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1290    ) -> str:
1291        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1292            table = expression.this.copy()
1293            table.set("alias", None)
1294            this = self.sql(table)
1295            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1296        else:
1297            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298            alias = ""
1299        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1300        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1301        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1302        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1303        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1304        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1305        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1306        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1307        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1308        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1309        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1310        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1311        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1312            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1313        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1314        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1315        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1316        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1317
1318    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1319        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1320
1321        if expression.this:
1322            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1324            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1325            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1326            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1327            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1328
1329        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1330        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1331        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1332        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1333        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1334        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1335        if include_nulls is not None:
1336            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1337        else:
1338            nulls = ""
1339        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1340
1341    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1342        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1343
1344    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1347        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1348        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1349        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1350        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1351        if self.RETURNING_END:
1352            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1353        else:
1354            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1355        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1356        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1357
1358    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1359        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1360        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1361            args = self.expressions(expression)
1362            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1363            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1364            values = (
1365                f"({values})"
1366                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1367                else values
1368            )
1369            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1370
1371        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1372        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1373        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1374        # very slow.
1375        expression = expression.copy()
1376        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1377
1378        selects = []
1379
1380        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1381            row = tup.expressions
1382
1383            if i == 0 and column_names:
1384                row = [
1385                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1386                ]
1387
1388            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1389
1390        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1391        if len(selects) > 1:
1392            for select in selects[1:]:
1393                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1394                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1395                )
1396
1397        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1398
1399    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1400        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1401
1402    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1403        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1404        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1405        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1406
1407    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1408        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1409
1410    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1411        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1412
1413        if expression.args.get("all"):
1414            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1415
1416        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1417        grouping_sets = (
1418            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1419        )
1420
1421        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1422        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1423            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1424        else:
1425            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1426            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1427
1428        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1429        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1430            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1431        else:
1432            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1433            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1434
1435        groupings = csv(
1436            grouping_sets,
1437            cube_sql,
1438            rollup_sql,
1439            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1440            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1441        )
1442
1443        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1444            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1445
1446        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1447
1448    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1449        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1450        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1451
1452    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1453        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1454        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1455        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1456        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1457        return start + connect
1458
1459    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1460        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1461
1462    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1463        op_sql = " ".join(
1464            op
1465            for op in (
1466                expression.method,
1467                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1468                expression.side,
1469                expression.kind,
1470                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1471            )
1472            if op
1473        )
1474        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1475        using = expression.args.get("using")
1476
1477        if not on_sql and using:
1478            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1479
1480        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1481
1482        if on_sql:
1483            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1484            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1485            if using:
1486                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1487            else:
1488                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1489        elif not op_sql:
1490            return f", {this_sql}"
1491
1492        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1493        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1494
1495    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1496        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1497        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1498        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1499
1500    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1502
1503        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1504            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1505
1506        if expression.args.get("view"):
1507            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1508            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1509            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1510            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1511            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1512            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1513
1514        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1515        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1516        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1517
1518    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1520        args = ", ".join(
1521            sql
1522            for sql in (
1523                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1524                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1525            )
1526            if sql
1527        )
1528        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1529
1530    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1532        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1533
1534    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1535        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1536        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1538        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1539        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1540        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1541        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1542        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1543
1544    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1545        expressions = (
1546            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1547        )
1548        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1549        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1550
1551    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1552        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1553
1554    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1555        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1556            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1557            return ""
1558
1559        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1560        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1561        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1562        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1563
1564        if wait is not None:
1565            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1566                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1567            else:
1568                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1569
1570        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1571
1572    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1573        text = expression.this or ""
1574        if expression.is_string:
1575            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1576        return text
1577
1578    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1579        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1580        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1581            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1582        elif self.pretty:
1583            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1584        return text
1585
1586    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1587        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1588        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1589        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1590        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1591        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1592        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1593        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1594        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1595        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1596        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1597        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1598
1599    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1600        return "NULL"
1601
1602    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1603        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1604
1605    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1607        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1608        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1609
1610    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1611        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1612
1613    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1614        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1615
1616    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1617        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1618
1619    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1620        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1621        asc = not desc
1622
1623        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1624        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1625        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1626        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1627        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1628
1629        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1630        nulls_sort_change = ""
1631        if nulls_first and (
1632            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1633        ):
1634            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1635        elif (
1636            nulls_last
1637            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1638            and not nulls_are_last
1639        ):
1640            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1641
1642        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1643            self.unsupported(
1644                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1645            )
1646            nulls_sort_change = ""
1647
1648        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1649
1650    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1651        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1652        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1653        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1654        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1655        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1656        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1657        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1658        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1659        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1660        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1661        definition_sqls = [
1662            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1663            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1664        ]
1665        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1666        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1667        body = "".join(
1668            (
1669                partition,
1670                order,
1671                measures,
1672                rows,
1673                after,
1674                pattern,
1675                define,
1676            )
1677        )
1678        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1679        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1680        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1681
1682    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1683        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1684
1685        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1686        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1687
1688        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1689            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1690        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1691            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1692
1693        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1694
1695        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1696            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1697            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1698            else []
1699        )
1700
1701        return csv(
1702            *sqls,
1703            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1704            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1705            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1706            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1707            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1708            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1709            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1710            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1711            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1712            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1713            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1714            sep="",
1715        )
1716
1717    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1718        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1719    ) -> t.List[str]:
1720        return [
1721            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1722            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1723        ]
1724
1725    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1726        return [
1727            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1728            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1729            if expression.args.get("windows")
1730            else "",
1731            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1732            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1733            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1734        ]
1735
1736    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1737        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1738        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1739        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1740
1741    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1742        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1743        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1744        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1745        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1746        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1747        top = (
1748            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1749            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1750            else ""
1751        )
1752
1753        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1754
1755        if kind:
1756            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1757                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1758            else:
1759                if kind == "STRUCT":
1760                    expressions = self.expressions(
1761                        sqls=[
1762                            self.sql(
1763                                exp.Struct(
1764                                    expressions=[
1765                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1766                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1767                                        )
1768                                        for e in expression.expressions
1769                                    ]
1770                                )
1771                            )
1772                        ]
1773                    )
1774                kind = ""
1775
1776        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1777        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1778            expression,
1779            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1780            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1781            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1782        )
1783        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1784
1785    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1787        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1788        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1789        return f"{this}{sql}"
1790
1791    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1792        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1793
1794    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1795        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1796        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1797        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1798        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1799        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1800
1801    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1804        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1805
1806    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808        kind = expression.text("kind")
1809        if kind:
1810            kind = f"{kind}."
1811        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1812
1813    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1814        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1815
1816    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1817        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1818        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1819
1820        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1821        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1822
1823        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1824        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1825
1826    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1827        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1828        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1829
1830    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1831        return self.prepend_ctes(
1832            expression,
1833            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1834        )
1835
1836    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1837        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1838        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1839        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1840        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1841
1842    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1843        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1844        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1845        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1846            columns = alias.columns
1847            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1848        else:
1849            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1850        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1851        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1852        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1853        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1854        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1855
1856    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1857        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1858        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1859
1860    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1862        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1863        order = expression.args.get("order")
1864        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1865        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1866        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1867        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1868
1869        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1870
1871        first = expression.args.get("first")
1872        if first is None:
1873            first = ""
1874        else:
1875            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1876
1877        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1878            return f"{this} {alias}"
1879
1880        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1881        return f"{this} ({args})"
1882
1883    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1884        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1885        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1886
1887    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1888        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1889        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1890        end = (
1891            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1892            or "CURRENT ROW"
1893        )
1894        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1895
1896    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1899        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1900
1901    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1904        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1905        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1906
1907    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1908        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1909        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1910
1911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1912
1913    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1914        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1915
1916    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1917        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1918
1919    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1922            this = self.wrap(this)
1923        return f"ANY {this}"
1924
1925    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1926        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1927
1928    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1930        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1931
1932        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1933            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1934            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1935
1936        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1937
1938        if default:
1939            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1940
1941        statements.append("END")
1942
1943        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1944            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1945
1946        return " ".join(statements)
1947
1948    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1951        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1952
1953    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1954        order = expression.args.get("order")
1955        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1956        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1957
1958    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1959        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1960        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1961        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1962
1963    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1964        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1965
1966        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1967            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1968        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1969            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1970        else:
1971            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1972
1973    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1974        expressions = expression.expressions
1975        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1976            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1977        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1978
1979    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1981        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1982
1983    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1984        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1985        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1986        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1987        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1988        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1989        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1990        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1991        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1992
1993    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1994        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1995        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1997        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1998
1999    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2000        expression = expression.copy()
2001        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2002
2003    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2004        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2005        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2006        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2007
2008    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2009        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2010
2011    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2012        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2013        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2014        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2015        if unique_keys is not None:
2016            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2017        else:
2018            unique_keys = ""
2019        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2020        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2021        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2022        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2023        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2024        return self.func(
2025            "JSON_OBJECT",
2026            *expression.expressions,
2027            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2028        )
2029
2030    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2033        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2034        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2035        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2036        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2037
2038    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2041        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2042        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2043        with_ = (
2044            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2045            if expressions
2046            else ""
2047        )
2048        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2049
2050    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2051        query = expression.args.get("query")
2052        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2053        field = expression.args.get("field")
2054        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2055
2056        if query:
2057            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2058        elif unnest:
2059            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2060        elif field:
2061            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2062        else:
2063            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2064
2065        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2066
2067    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2068        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2069
2070    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2071        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2072        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2073            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2074        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2075
2076        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2077            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2078            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2079
2080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        if this:
2082            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2083            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2084
2085        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2086
2087    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2088        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2089
2090    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2094        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2095        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2096        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2097
2098    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2099        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2100
2101    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2102        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2103            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2104        else:
2105            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2106            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2107
2108        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2109
2110    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2111        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2112        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2113        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2114        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2115
2116    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2117        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2118
2119    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2120        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2121        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2122        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2123
2124    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2125        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2126
2127    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2130        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2131
2132    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2134
2135    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2136        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2137
2138    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2139        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2140
2141    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2142        if not self.pretty:
2143            return self.binary(expression, op)
2144
2145        sqls = tuple(
2146            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2147            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2148        )
2149
2150        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2151        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2152
2153    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2154        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2155
2156    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2157        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2158
2159    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2160        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2161
2162    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2164
2165    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2167
2168    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2169        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2170
2171    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2172        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2173        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2174        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2175
2176    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2177        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2178        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2179
2180    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2181        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2182
2183    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2185
2186    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2190        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2191        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2192
2193    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2195        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2196        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2197        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2198        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2199        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2200        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2201        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2202        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2203
2204    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2205        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2206        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2207        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2208        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2209
2210        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2211            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2212
2213        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2214
2215    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2216        return "BEGIN"
2217
2218    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2219        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2220        if chain is not None:
2221            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2222
2223        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2224
2225    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2226        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2227        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2228        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2229
2230    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2232
2233        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2234        if dtype:
2235            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2236            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2237            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2238            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2240
2241        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2242        if default:
2243            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2244
2245        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2246            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2247
2248        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2249
2250    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2251        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2252            # Remove db from tables
2253            expression = expression.transform(
2254                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2255            )
2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2257        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2258
2259    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2260        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2261
2262        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2266        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2268        else:
2269            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2270
2271        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2272        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2273
2274    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2275        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2276        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2277        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2278
2279    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2282        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2283
2284        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2285        if enforced is not None:
2286            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2287
2288        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2289
2290    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2291        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2292        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2293
2294        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2295        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2296        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2297
2298    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2299        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2300
2301    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2302        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2303
2304    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2305        return self.sql(
2306            exp.Cast(
2307                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2308                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2309            )
2310        )
2311
2312    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2314
2315    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2316        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2317            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2318        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2319
2320    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2322
2323    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2325
2326    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2328
2329    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2331
2332    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2334
2335    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2336        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2337
2338    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2339        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2340
2341    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2343
2344    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2345        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2346
2347    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2348        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2349
2350    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2352
2353    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2354        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2355            return self.sql(
2356                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2357            )
2358        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2359
2360    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2362
2363    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2365
2366    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2368
2369    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2371
2372    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2373        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2374
2375    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2376        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2377
2378    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2380
2381    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2382        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2383
2384    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2385        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2386
2387    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2388        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2389
2390    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2391        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2392
2393    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2394        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2395
2396    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2397        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2398
2399    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2400        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2401
2402    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2403        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2404        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2406        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2407        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2408
2409    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2410        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2411        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2412
2413    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2414        args = []
2415
2416        for key in expression.arg_types:
2417            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2418
2419            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2420                for value in arg_value:
2421                    args.append(value)
2422            elif arg_value is not None:
2423                args.append(arg_value)
2424
2425        if self.normalize_functions:
2426            name = expression.sql_name()
2427        else:
2428            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2429
2430        return self.func(name, *args)
2431
2432    def func(
2433        self,
2434        name: str,
2435        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2436        prefix: str = "(",
2437        suffix: str = ")",
2438    ) -> str:
2439        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2440
2441    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2442        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2443        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2444            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2445        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2446
2447    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2448        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2449
2450    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2451        return format_time(
2452            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2453        )
2454
2455    def expressions(
2456        self,
2457        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2458        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2459        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2460        flat: bool = False,
2461        indent: bool = True,
2462        skip_first: bool = False,
2463        sep: str = ", ",
2464        prefix: str = "",
2465    ) -> str:
2466        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2467
2468        if not expressions:
2469            return ""
2470
2471        if flat:
2472            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2473
2474        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2475
2476        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2477        pad = " " * self.pad
2478        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2479
2480        result_sqls = []
2481        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2482            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2483            if not sql:
2484                continue
2485
2486            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2487
2488            if self.pretty:
2489                if self.leading_comma:
2490                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2491                else:
2492                    result_sqls.append(
2493                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2494                    )
2495            else:
2496                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2497
2498        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2499        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2500
2501    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2502        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2503        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2504        if flat:
2505            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2506        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2507
2508    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2509        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2510        if not property_name:
2511            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2512        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2513
2514    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516        op = self.seg(op)
2517        return self.query_modifiers(
2518            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2519        )
2520
2521    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2522        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2523
2524    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2525        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2526
2527    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2530        expressions = (
2531            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2532        )
2533        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2534
2535    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2538        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2539
2540    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2541        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2542
2543    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2544        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2545        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2546        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2547        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2548
2549        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2550        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2551            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2552            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2553                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2554        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2555            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2556                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2557            else:
2558                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2559        else:
2560            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2561        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2562
2563    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2564        table = expression.this
2565        table_alias = ""
2566
2567        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2568        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2569            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2570            table = table.copy()
2571            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2572
2573        this = self.sql(table)
2574        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2575        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2577
2578        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2579
2580    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2581        if expression.args.get("format"):
2582            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2583
2584        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2585
2586    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2588        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2589        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2590        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2591        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2592
2593    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2595        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2596        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2597        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2598
2599    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2600        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2601
2602    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2603        return ""
2604
2605    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2606        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2607        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2608        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2609        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2610        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2611
2612    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2615
2616        if having:
2617            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2618
2619        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2620
2621    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2622        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2623        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2624        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2625        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2626        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2627        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2628        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2629        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2630        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2631        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2632        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2633        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2634        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2635
2636    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2637        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2638        if key_block_size:
2639            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2640
2641        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2642        if using:
2643            return f"USING {using}"
2644
2645        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2646        if parser:
2647            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2648
2649        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2650        if comment:
2651            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2652
2653        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2654        if visible is not None:
2655            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2656
2657        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2658        if engine_attr:
2659            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2660
2661        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2662        if secondary_engine_attr:
2663            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2664
2665        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2666        return ""
2667
2668    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2669        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2670        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2672        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2673        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2674        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2675        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2676        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2677        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2678        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2679        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2680
2681    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2682        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2683            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2684
2685        case = exp.Case().when(
2686            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2687            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2688            copy=False,
2689        )
2690        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2691        if else_cond:
2692            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2693
2694        return self.sql(case)
2695
2696    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2699        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2700        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2701        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2702        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
357    def __init__(
358        self,
359        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
360        identify: str | bool = False,
361        normalize: bool = False,
362        pad: int = 2,
363        indent: int = 2,
364        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
365        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
366        max_unsupported: int = 3,
367        leading_comma: bool = False,
368        max_text_width: int = 80,
369        comments: bool = True,
370    ):
371        import sqlglot
372
373        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
374        self.identify = identify
375        self.normalize = normalize
376        self.pad = pad
377        self._indent = indent
378        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
379        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
380        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
381        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
382        self.comments = comments
383
384        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
385        self.normalize_functions = (
386            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
387        )
388
389        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
390        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
391        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
392            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
393        )
394        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
256    @classmethod
257    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
258        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
259
260        Args:
261            text: The text to check.
262            identify:
263                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
264                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
265
266        Returns:
267            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
268        """
269        if identify is True or identify == "always":
270            return True
271
272        if identify == "safe":
273            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
274
275        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
396    def generate(
397        self,
398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
399        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
400    ) -> str:
401        """
402        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
403
404        Args:
405            expression: The syntax tree.
406            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
407                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
408
409        Returns:
410            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
411        """
412        if cache is not None:
413            self._cache = cache
414
415        self.unsupported_messages = []
416        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
417        self._cache = None
418
419        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
420            return sql
421
422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
423            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
424                logger.warning(msg)
425        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
426            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
427
428        if self.pretty:
429            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
430        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
432    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
433        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
434            raise UnsupportedError(message)
435        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
437    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
438        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
440    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
441        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
443    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
444        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
445        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
446        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
448    def maybe_comment(
449        self,
450        sql: str,
451        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
452        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
453    ) -> str:
454        comments = (
455            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
456            if self.comments
457            else None
458        )
459
460        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
461            return sql
462
463        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
464        comments_sql = sep.join(
465            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
466        )
467
468        if not comments_sql:
469            return sql
470
471        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
472            return (
473                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
474                if sql[0].isspace()
475                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
476            )
477
478        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
480    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
481        this_sql = self.indent(
482            self.sql(expression)
483            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
484            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
485            level=1,
486            pad=0,
487        )
488        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
490    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
491        original = self.identify
492        self.identify = False
493        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
494        self.identify = original
495        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
497    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
498        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
499            return name.upper()
500        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
501            return name.lower()
502        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
504    def indent(
505        self,
506        sql: str,
507        level: int = 0,
508        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
509        skip_first: bool = False,
510        skip_last: bool = False,
511    ) -> str:
512        if not self.pretty:
513            return sql
514
515        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
516        lines = sql.split("\n")
517
518        return "\n".join(
519            line
520            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
521            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
522            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
523        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
525    def sql(
526        self,
527        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
529        comment: bool = True,
530    ) -> str:
531        if not expression:
532            return ""
533
534        if isinstance(expression, str):
535            return expression
536
537        if key:
538            value = expression.args.get(key)
539            if value:
540                return self.sql(value)
541            return ""
542
543        if self._cache is not None:
544            expression_id = hash(expression)
545
546            if expression_id in self._cache:
547                return self._cache[expression_id]
548
549        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
550
551        if callable(transform):
552            sql = transform(self, expression)
553        elif transform:
554            sql = transform
555        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
556            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
557
558            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
559                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
561                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
563                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
564            else:
565                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
566        else:
567            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
568
569        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
570
571        if self._cache is not None:
572            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
573        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
575    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
577        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
578        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
580    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
581        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
582        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
583        options = expression.args.get("options")
584        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
585        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
586        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
587        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
590    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
591        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
592            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
593        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
594        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
596    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
597        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
598
599        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
600            join_mark = ""
601            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
602
603        column = ".".join(
604            self.sql(part)
605            for part in (
606                expression.args.get("catalog"),
607                expression.args.get("db"),
608                expression.args.get("table"),
609                expression.args.get("this"),
610            )
611            if part
612        )
613
614        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
616    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
620        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
622    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
623        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
625        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
626        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
627        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
628        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
629        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
630        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
631
632        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
634    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
636        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
637        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
639    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
641        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
642            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
643        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
644            persisted = " PERSISTED"
645        else:
646            persisted = ""
647        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
649    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
650        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
652    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
653        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
654            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
655        else:
656            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
657
658        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
660    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
661        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
662    ) -> str:
663        this = ""
664        if expression.this is not None:
665            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
666            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
667
668        start = expression.args.get("start")
669        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
670        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
671        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
672        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
673        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
674        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
675        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
676        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
677        cycle_sql = ""
678
679        if cycle is not None:
680            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
681            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
682
683        sequence_opts = ""
684        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
685            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
686            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
687
688        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
689        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
690
691        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
693    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
694        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
696    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
697        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
698        if desc is not None:
699            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
700        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
702    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
704        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
705        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
707    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
708        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
710    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
712        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
713        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
714
715        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
716
717        properties_sql = ""
718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
719            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
720        ):
721            properties_sql = self.sql(
722                exp.Properties(
723                    expressions=[
724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
725                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
726                    ]
727                )
728            )
729
730        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
732        if expression_sql:
733            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
734
735            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
736                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
737                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
738                        exp.Properties(
739                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
740                        ),
741                        wrapped=False,
742                    )
743                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
744                else:
745                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
746
747        postindex_props_sql = ""
748        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
749            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
750                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
751                wrapped=False,
752                prefix=" ",
753            )
754
755        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
756        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
757        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
758
759        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
760        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
761
762        postcreate_props_sql = ""
763        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
764            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
765                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
766                sep=" ",
767                prefix=" ",
768                wrapped=False,
769            )
770
771        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
772
773        postexpression_props_sql = ""
774        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
775            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
776                exp.Properties(
777                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
778                ),
779                sep=" ",
780                prefix=" ",
781                wrapped=False,
782            )
783
784        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
785        no_schema_binding = (
786            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
787        )
788
789        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
790        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
791
792        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
795    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
798
799        if when:
800            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
801            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
802            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
803
804        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
806    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
807        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
809    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
810        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
811        if with_:
812            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
813        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
815    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
816        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
817        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
818
819        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
821    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
822        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
823        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
825    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
826        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
827        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
828        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
829        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
831    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
833        if self.BIT_START:
834            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
835        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
837    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        if self.HEX_START:
840            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
841        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
843    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        if self.BYTE_START:
846            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
847        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
849    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
850        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
851        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
853    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
855        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
856        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
857        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
859    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
860        type_value = expression.this
861
862        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
863            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
864        else:
865            type_sql = (
866                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
867                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
868                else type_value
869            )
870
871        nested = ""
872        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
873        values = ""
874
875        if interior:
876            if expression.args.get("nested"):
877                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
878                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
879                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
880                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
881                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
882            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
883                nested = f" {interior}"
884            else:
885                nested = f"({interior})"
886
887        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
888        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
890            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
891        ):
892            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
893
894        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
896    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
897        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
898        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
899        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
900        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
902    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
904        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
905        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
906        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
907        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
908        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
909        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
910        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
911        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
912        if self.RETURNING_END:
913            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
914        else:
915            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
916        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
918    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
920        kind = expression.args["kind"]
921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
922        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
923        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
924        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
925        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
926        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
927        return (
928            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
929        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
931    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
932        return self.prepend_ctes(
933            expression,
934            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
935        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
937    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
938        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
940    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
941        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
942        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
943        count = expression.args.get("count")
944        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
945        if expression.args.get("percent"):
946            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
947        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
948        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
950    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
952        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
953        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
955    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
956        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
957            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
958            return ""
959
960        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
962    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
963        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
964        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
965        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
966        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
967        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
968        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
969        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
970        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
971        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
972        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
973        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
974        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
975        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
976        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
977        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
979    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
980        text = expression.name
981        lower = text.lower()
982        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
983        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
984        if (
985            expression.quoted
986            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
987            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
988            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
989        ):
990            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
991        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
993    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
994        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
995        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
996        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
997        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
998        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1000    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1001        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1002        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1004    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1005        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1007    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1008        root_properties = []
1009        with_properties = []
1010
1011        for p in expression.expressions:
1012            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1013            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1014                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1016                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1017
1018        return self.root_properties(
1019            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1020        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1022    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1023        if properties.expressions:
1024            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1025        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1027    def properties(
1028        self,
1029        properties: exp.Properties,
1030        prefix: str = "",
1031        sep: str = ", ",
1032        suffix: str = "",
1033        wrapped: bool = True,
1034    ) -> str:
1035        if properties.expressions:
1036            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1037            if expressions:
1038                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1039                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1040        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1042    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1043        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1045    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1046        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1047        for p in properties.expressions:
1048            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1049            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1050                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1051            else:
1052                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1053
1054        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1056    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1057        property_cls = expression.__class__
1058        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1059            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1060
1061        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1062        if not property_name:
1063            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1064
1065        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1067    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1068        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1069        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1070        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1072    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1073        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1074        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1075        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1077    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        local = expression.args.get("local")
1080        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1081        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1082        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1083        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1084        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1086    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1087        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1089        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1091    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1092        if expression.args.get("default"):
1093            property = "DEFAULT"
1094        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1095            property = "ON"
1096        else:
1097            property = "OFF"
1098        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1100    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1101        if expression.args.get("no"):
1102            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1103        if expression.args.get("default"):
1104            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1105
1106        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1107        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1109    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1110        default = expression.args.get("default")
1111        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1112        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1113        if default or minimum or maximum:
1114            if default:
1115                prop = "DEFAULT"
1116            elif minimum:
1117                prop = "MINIMUM"
1118            else:
1119                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1120            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1121        units = expression.args.get("units")
1122        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1123        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1125    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1126        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1127        always = expression.args.get("always")
1128        default = expression.args.get("default")
1129        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1130        never = expression.args.get("never")
1131
1132        if autotemp is not None:
1133            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1134        elif always:
1135            prop = "ALWAYS"
1136        elif default:
1137            prop = "DEFAULT"
1138        elif manual:
1139            prop = "MANUAL"
1140        elif never:
1141            prop = "NEVER"
1142        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1144    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1145        no = expression.args.get("no")
1146        no = " NO" if no else ""
1147        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1148        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1149
1150        for_ = ""
1151        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1152            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1153        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1154            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1155        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1156            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1157        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1159    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1160        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1161        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1162        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1163        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1164        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1165        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1167    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1168        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1169        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1170        statistics_sql = ""
1171        if statistics is not None:
1172            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1173        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1175    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1176        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1177
1178        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1179            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1180        else:
1181            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1182
1183        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1184        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1185        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1186
1187        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1188
1189        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1190        partition_sql = (
1191            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1192        )
1193        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1194        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1195        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1196        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1197        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1198        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1199
1200        if self.RETURNING_END:
1201            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1202        else:
1203            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1204
1205        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1206        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1208    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1209        return self.prepend_ctes(
1210            expression,
1211            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1212        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1214    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1215        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1217    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1218        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1220    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1221        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1223    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1224        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1225        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1226        if constraint:
1227            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1228        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1229        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1230        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1231        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1232        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1233        if expressions:
1234            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1235        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1237    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1238        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1240    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1241        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1242        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1243        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1244        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1245        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1246        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1247        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1248        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1249        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1250        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1251        null = expression.args.get("null")
1252        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1253        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1255    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1256        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1258    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1259        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1260        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1261        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1262        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1264    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1265        table = ".".join(
1266            part
1267            for part in [
1268                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1269                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1270                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1271            ]
1272            if part
1273        )
1274
1275        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1276        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1277        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1278        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1279        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1280        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1281        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1282        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1283        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1284        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1285
1286        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1288    def tablesample_sql(
1289        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1290    ) -> str:
1291        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1292            table = expression.this.copy()
1293            table.set("alias", None)
1294            this = self.sql(table)
1295            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1296        else:
1297            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298            alias = ""
1299        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1300        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1301        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1302        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1303        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1304        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1305        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1306        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1307        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1308        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1309        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1310        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1311        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1312            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1313        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1314        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1315        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1316        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1318    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1319        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1320
1321        if expression.this:
1322            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1324            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1325            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1326            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1327            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1328
1329        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1330        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1331        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1332        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1333        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1334        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1335        if include_nulls is not None:
1336            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1337        else:
1338            nulls = ""
1339        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1341    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1342        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1344    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1347        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1348        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1349        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1350        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1351        if self.RETURNING_END:
1352            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1353        else:
1354            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1355        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1356        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1358    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1359        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1360        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1361            args = self.expressions(expression)
1362            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1363            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1364            values = (
1365                f"({values})"
1366                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1367                else values
1368            )
1369            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1370
1371        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1372        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1373        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1374        # very slow.
1375        expression = expression.copy()
1376        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1377
1378        selects = []
1379
1380        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1381            row = tup.expressions
1382
1383            if i == 0 and column_names:
1384                row = [
1385                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1386                ]
1387
1388            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1389
1390        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1391        if len(selects) > 1:
1392            for select in selects[1:]:
1393                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1394                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1395                )
1396
1397        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1399    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1400        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1402    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1403        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1404        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1405        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1407    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1408        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1410    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1411        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1412
1413        if expression.args.get("all"):
1414            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1415
1416        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1417        grouping_sets = (
1418            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1419        )
1420
1421        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1422        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1423            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1424        else:
1425            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1426            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1427
1428        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1429        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1430            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1431        else:
1432            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1433            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1434
1435        groupings = csv(
1436            grouping_sets,
1437            cube_sql,
1438            rollup_sql,
1439            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1440            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1441        )
1442
1443        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1444            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1445
1446        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1448    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1449        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1450        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1452    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1453        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1454        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1455        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1456        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1457        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1459    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1460        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1462    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1463        op_sql = " ".join(
1464            op
1465            for op in (
1466                expression.method,
1467                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1468                expression.side,
1469                expression.kind,
1470                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1471            )
1472            if op
1473        )
1474        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1475        using = expression.args.get("using")
1476
1477        if not on_sql and using:
1478            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1479
1480        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1481
1482        if on_sql:
1483            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1484            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1485            if using:
1486                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1487            else:
1488                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1489        elif not op_sql:
1490            return f", {this_sql}"
1491
1492        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1493        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1495    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1496        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1497        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1498        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1500    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1502
1503        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1504            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1505
1506        if expression.args.get("view"):
1507            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1508            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1509            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1510            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1511            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1512            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1513
1514        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1515        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1516        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1518    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1520        args = ", ".join(
1521            sql
1522            for sql in (
1523                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1524                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1525            )
1526            if sql
1527        )
1528        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1530    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1532        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1534    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1535        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1536        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1538        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1539        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1540        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1541        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1542        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1544    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1545        expressions = (
1546            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1547        )
1548        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1549        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1551    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1552        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1554    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1555        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1556            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1557            return ""
1558
1559        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1560        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1561        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1562        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1563
1564        if wait is not None:
1565            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1566                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1567            else:
1568                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1569
1570        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1572    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1573        text = expression.this or ""
1574        if expression.is_string:
1575            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1576        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1578    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1579        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1580        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1581            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1582        elif self.pretty:
1583            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1584        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1586    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1587        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1588        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1589        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1590        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1591        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1592        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1593        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1594        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1595        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1596        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1597        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1599    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1600        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1602    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1603        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1605    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1607        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1608        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1610    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1611        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1613    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1614        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1616    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1617        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1619    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1620        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1621        asc = not desc
1622
1623        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1624        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1625        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1626        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1627        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1628
1629        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1630        nulls_sort_change = ""
1631        if nulls_first and (
1632            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1633        ):
1634            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1635        elif (
1636            nulls_last
1637            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1638            and not nulls_are_last
1639        ):
1640            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1641
1642        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1643            self.unsupported(
1644                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1645            )
1646            nulls_sort_change = ""
1647
1648        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1650    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1651        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1652        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1653        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1654        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1655        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1656        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1657        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1658        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1659        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1660        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1661        definition_sqls = [
1662            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1663            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1664        ]
1665        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1666        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1667        body = "".join(
1668            (
1669                partition,
1670                order,
1671                measures,
1672                rows,
1673                after,
1674                pattern,
1675                define,
1676            )
1677        )
1678        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1679        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1680        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1682    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1683        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1684
1685        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1686        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1687
1688        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1689            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1690        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1691            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1692
1693        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1694
1695        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1696            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1697            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1698            else []
1699        )
1700
1701        return csv(
1702            *sqls,
1703            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1704            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1705            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1706            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1707            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1708            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1709            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1710            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1711            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1712            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1713            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1714            sep="",
1715        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1717    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1718        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1719    ) -> t.List[str]:
1720        return [
1721            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1722            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1723        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1725    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1726        return [
1727            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1728            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1729            if expression.args.get("windows")
1730            else "",
1731            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1732            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1733            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1734        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1736    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1737        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1738        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1739        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1741    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1742        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1743        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1744        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1745        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1746        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1747        top = (
1748            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1749            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1750            else ""
1751        )
1752
1753        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1754
1755        if kind:
1756            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1757                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1758            else:
1759                if kind == "STRUCT":
1760                    expressions = self.expressions(
1761                        sqls=[
1762                            self.sql(
1763                                exp.Struct(
1764                                    expressions=[
1765                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1766                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1767                                        )
1768                                        for e in expression.expressions
1769                                    ]
1770                                )
1771                            )
1772                        ]
1773                    )
1774                kind = ""
1775
1776        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1777        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1778            expression,
1779            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1780            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1781            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1782        )
1783        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1785    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1787        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1788        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1789        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1791    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1792        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1794    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1795        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1796        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1797        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1798        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1799        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1801    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1804        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1806    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808        kind = expression.text("kind")
1809        if kind:
1810            kind = f"{kind}."
1811        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1813    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1814        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1816    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1817        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1818        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1819
1820        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1821        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1822
1823        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1824        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1826    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1827        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1828        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1830    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1831        return self.prepend_ctes(
1832            expression,
1833            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1834        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1836    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1837        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1838        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1839        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1840        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1842    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1843        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1844        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1845        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1846            columns = alias.columns
1847            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1848        else:
1849            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1850        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1851        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1852        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1853        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1854        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1856    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1857        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1858        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1860    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1862        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1863        order = expression.args.get("order")
1864        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1865        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1866        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1867        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1868
1869        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1870
1871        first = expression.args.get("first")
1872        if first is None:
1873            first = ""
1874        else:
1875            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1876
1877        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1878            return f"{this} {alias}"
1879
1880        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1881        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1883    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1884        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1885        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1887    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1888        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1889        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1890        end = (
1891            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1892            or "CURRENT ROW"
1893        )
1894        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1896    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1899        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1901    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1904        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1905        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1907    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1908        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1909        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1910
1911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1913    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1914        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1916    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1917        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1919    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1922            this = self.wrap(this)
1923        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1925    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1926        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1928    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1930        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1931
1932        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1933            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1934            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1935
1936        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1937
1938        if default:
1939            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1940
1941        statements.append("END")
1942
1943        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1944            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1945
1946        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1948    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1951        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1953    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1954        order = expression.args.get("order")
1955        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1956        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1958    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1959        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1960        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1961        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1963    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1964        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1965
1966        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1967            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1968        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1969            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1970        else:
1971            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1973    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1974        expressions = expression.expressions
1975        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1976            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1977        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1979    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1981        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1983    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1984        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1985        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1986        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1987        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1988        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1989        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1990        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1991        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1993    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1994        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1995        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1997        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1999    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2000        expression = expression.copy()
2001        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2003    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2004        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2005        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2006        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2008    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2009        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2011    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2012        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2013        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2014        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2015        if unique_keys is not None:
2016            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2017        else:
2018            unique_keys = ""
2019        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2020        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2021        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2022        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2023        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2024        return self.func(
2025            "JSON_OBJECT",
2026            *expression.expressions,
2027            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2028        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2030    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2033        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2034        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2035        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2036        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2038    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2041        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2042        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2043        with_ = (
2044            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2045            if expressions
2046            else ""
2047        )
2048        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2050    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2051        query = expression.args.get("query")
2052        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2053        field = expression.args.get("field")
2054        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2055
2056        if query:
2057            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2058        elif unnest:
2059            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2060        elif field:
2061            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2062        else:
2063            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2064
2065        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2067    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2068        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2070    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2071        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2072        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2073            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2074        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2075
2076        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2077            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2078            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2079
2080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        if this:
2082            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2083            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2084
2085        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2087    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2088        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2090    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2094        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2095        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2096        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2098    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2099        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2101    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2102        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2103            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2104        else:
2105            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2106            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2107
2108        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2110    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2111        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2112        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2113        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2114        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2116    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2117        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2119    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2120        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2121        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2122        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2124    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2125        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2127    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2130        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2132    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2135    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2136        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2138    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2139        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2141    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2142        if not self.pretty:
2143            return self.binary(expression, op)
2144
2145        sqls = tuple(
2146            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2147            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2148        )
2149
2150        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2151        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2153    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2154        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2156    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2157        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2159    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2160        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2162    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2165    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2168    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2169        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2171    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2172        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2173        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2174        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2176    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2177        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2178        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2180    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2181        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2183    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2186    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2190        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2191        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2193    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2195        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2196        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2197        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2198        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2199        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2200        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2201        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2202        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2204    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2205        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2206        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2207        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2208        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2209
2210        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2211            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2212
2213        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2215    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2216        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2218    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2219        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2220        if chain is not None:
2221            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2222
2223        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2225    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2226        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2227        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2228        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2230    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2232
2233        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2234        if dtype:
2235            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2236            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2237            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2238            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2240
2241        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2242        if default:
2243            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2244
2245        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2246            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2247
2248        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2250    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2251        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2252            # Remove db from tables
2253            expression = expression.transform(
2254                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2255            )
2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2257        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2259    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2260        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2261
2262        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2266        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2268        else:
2269            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2270
2271        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2272        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2274    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2275        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2276        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2277        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2279    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2282        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2283
2284        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2285        if enforced is not None:
2286            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2287
2288        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2290    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2291        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2292        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2293
2294        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2295        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2296        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2298    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2299        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2301    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2302        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2304    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2305        return self.sql(
2306            exp.Cast(
2307                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2308                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2309            )
2310        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2312    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2315    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2316        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2317            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2318        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2320    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2323    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2326    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2329    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2332    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2335    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2336        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2338    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2339        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2341    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2344    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2345        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2347    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2348        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2350    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2353    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2354        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2355            return self.sql(
2356                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2357            )
2358        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2360    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2363    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2366    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2369    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2372    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2373        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2375    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2376        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2378    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2381    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2382        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2384    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2385        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2387    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2388        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2390    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2391        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2393    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2394        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2396    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2397        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2399    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2400        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2402    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2403        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2404        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2406        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2407        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2409    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2410        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2411        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2413    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2414        args = []
2415
2416        for key in expression.arg_types:
2417            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2418
2419            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2420                for value in arg_value:
2421                    args.append(value)
2422            elif arg_value is not None:
2423                args.append(arg_value)
2424
2425        if self.normalize_functions:
2426            name = expression.sql_name()
2427        else:
2428            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2429
2430        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2432    def func(
2433        self,
2434        name: str,
2435        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2436        prefix: str = "(",
2437        suffix: str = ")",
2438    ) -> str:
2439        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2441    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2442        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2443        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2444            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2445        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2447    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2448        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2450    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2451        return format_time(
2452            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2453        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2455    def expressions(
2456        self,
2457        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2458        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2459        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2460        flat: bool = False,
2461        indent: bool = True,
2462        skip_first: bool = False,
2463        sep: str = ", ",
2464        prefix: str = "",
2465    ) -> str:
2466        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2467
2468        if not expressions:
2469            return ""
2470
2471        if flat:
2472            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2473
2474        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2475
2476        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2477        pad = " " * self.pad
2478        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2479
2480        result_sqls = []
2481        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2482            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2483            if not sql:
2484                continue
2485
2486            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2487
2488            if self.pretty:
2489                if self.leading_comma:
2490                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2491                else:
2492                    result_sqls.append(
2493                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2494                    )
2495            else:
2496                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2497
2498        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2499        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2501    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2502        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2503        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2504        if flat:
2505            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2506        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2508    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2509        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2510        if not property_name:
2511            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2512        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2514    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516        op = self.seg(op)
2517        return self.query_modifiers(
2518            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2519        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2521    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2522        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2524    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2525        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2527    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2530        expressions = (
2531            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2532        )
2533        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2535    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2538        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2540    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2541        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2543    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2544        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2545        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2546        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2547        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2548
2549        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2550        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2551            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2552            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2553                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2554        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2555            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2556                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2557            else:
2558                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2559        else:
2560            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2561        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2563    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2564        table = expression.this
2565        table_alias = ""
2566
2567        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2568        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2569            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2570            table = table.copy()
2571            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2572
2573        this = self.sql(table)
2574        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2575        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2577
2578        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2580    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2581        if expression.args.get("format"):
2582            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2583
2584        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2586    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2588        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2589        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2590        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2591        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2593    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2595        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2596        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2597        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2599    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2600        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2602    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2603        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2605    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2606        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2607        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2608        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2609        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2610        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2612    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2615
2616        if having:
2617            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2618
2619        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2621    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2622        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2623        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2624        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2625        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2626        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2627        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2628        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2629        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2630        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2631        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2632        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2633        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2634        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2636    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2637        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2638        if key_block_size:
2639            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2640
2641        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2642        if using:
2643            return f"USING {using}"
2644
2645        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2646        if parser:
2647            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2648
2649        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2650        if comment:
2651            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2652
2653        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2654        if visible is not None:
2655            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2656
2657        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2658        if engine_attr:
2659            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2660
2661        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2662        if secondary_engine_attr:
2663            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2664
2665        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2666        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2668    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2669        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2670        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2672        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2673        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2674        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2675        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2676        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2677        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2678        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2679        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2681    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2682        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2683            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2684
2685        case = exp.Case().when(
2686            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2687            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2688            copy=False,
2689        )
2690        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2691        if else_cond:
2692            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2693
2694        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2696    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2699        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2700        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2701        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2702        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2705def cached_generator(
2706    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2707) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2708    """Returns a cached generator."""
2709    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2710    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2711    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.